Last Updated: May 24, 2023
Common Vertebrate Hormones
Secreted Factors: Tissue "Kines" page (more complete listing) | ||
22kDa proteolytic fragment of the transmembrane protein FNDC5 (fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5) | expression induced, in skeletal muscle, by PGC1-α in response to exercise, induces a conversion of white adipose tissue (WAT) into a more brown fat (BAT) type, generally referred to as beige or brite fat cells | |
posterior pituitary peptide; polypeptide of 9 amino acids CYIQNCPLG (C residues are disulfide bonded) | uterine contraction, causes milk ejection in lactating females (the "let-down" response), responds to suckling reflex and estradiol, lowers steroid synthesis in testes | |
(antidiuretic hormone, ADH) | posterior pituitary peptide; polypeptide of 9 amino acids CYFQNCPRG (C residues are disulfide bonded) | responds to osmoreceptor which senses extracellular [Na+], blood pressure regulation, increases H2O reabsorption from distal tubules in kidney, loss results in dilute urine and polydipsia (constant thirst) condition termed diabetes insipidus |
anterior pituitary peptides derived from POMC: α polypeptide: 13 amino acids β polypeptide: 18 amino acids γ polypeptide: 12 amino acids | α-MSH most significant, involved in control of appetite and feeding behaviors via melanocortin receptor (MC4R)-expressing neurons in hypothalamus, immunomodulation via MC1R-expressing monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs), down-regulates the production of proinflammatory and immunomodulating cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNFα, IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-13) as well as the expression of costimulatory molecules (CD86, CD40, ICAM-1) on antigen-presenting DCs | |
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) also called corticotropin | anterior pituitary peptide derived from POMC; polypeptide: 39 amino acids | stimulates cells of adrenal gland to increase steroid synthesis and secretion |
Lipotropin (LPH) | anterior pituitary peptides derived from POMC: β polypeptide: 93 amino acids γ polypeptide: 60 amino acids | increases fatty acid release from adipocytes |
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH); also known as Thyrotropin | anterior pituitary peptides; two peptides: α peptide is 96 amino acids; β peptide is 112 amino acids | acts on thyroid follicle cells to stimulate thyroid hormone synthesis |
Growth hormone (GH, or somatotropin) | anterior pituitary peptide: 191 amino acids | general anabolic stimulant, increases release of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), cell growth and bone sulfation |
Prolactin (PRL) | anterior pituitary peptide: 197 amino acids | stimulates differentiation of secretory cells of mammary gland and stimulates milk synthesis |
Luteinizing hormone (LH); human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is similar and produced in placenta | anterior pituitary peptides; two peptides: α peptide is 96 amino acids; β peptide is 121 amino acids | increases ovarian progesterone synthesis, luteinization; acts on Leydig cells of testes to increase testosterone synthesis and release and increases interstitial cell development |
anterior pituitary peptides; two proteins: α peptide is 96 amino acids; β peptide is 120 amino acids | ovarian follicle development and ovulation, increases estrogen production; acts on Sertoli cells of seminiferous tubule to increase spermatogenesis | |
two peptides from single preproprotein; orexin A is 33 amino acids, orexin B is 28 amino acids | important roles in the emotional and motivational aspects of feeding behavior, increases food consumption (orexigenic) hence derivation of peptide name; increases wakefulness and suppresses REM sleep | |
19 amino acid cyclic peptide | important orexigenic (appetite stimulating) hormone | |
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) | 36 amino acids, five receptors termed Y receptors | effects on hypothalamic function in appetite, controls feeding behavior and energy homeostasis, levels increase during starvation to induce food intake |
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF or CRH) | peptide of 41 amino acids | acts on corticotrope to release ACTH and β-endorphin (lipotropin) |
Gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF or GnRH) | peptide of 10 amino acids | acts on gonadotrophs to release LH and FSH |
Prolactin-release inhibiting factor (PIF or PIH) | is the neurotransmitter dopamine | acts on lactotrophs to inhibit prolactin release |
Growth hormone-releasing factor (GHRF or GHRH) | protein of 40 and 44 amino acids | stimulates GH secretion |
Somatostatin (SIF, also called growth hormone-release inhibiting factor, GHIF) | peptide of 14 and 28 amino acids | inhibits GH and TSH secretion |
Thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF; also called thyrotropin releasing hormone: TRH) | peptide of 3 amino acids derived from a 242 amino acid precursor; when fully processed the C-terminal Gln residue is converted to pyroglutamate which is a cyclic amino acid; active peptide is NH2-Pro-His-Glu(pyro) | stimulates TSH and prolactin secretion |
iodinated dityrosine derivatives | responds to TSH and stimulates oxidations in many cells | |
protein of 32 amino acids | produced in parafollicular C cells of the thyroid, its role in the regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis is insignificant in humans | |
hormone is termed αCGRP; protein of 37 amino acids; product of the calcitonin gene (CALCA) as a result of alternative splicing of the precursor mRNA in the brain; a related protein (βCGRP) is derived from the CALCB gene | functions in nociception (sensation of pain) and in homeostasis of the cardiovascular system through functioning as a potent vasodilator | |
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) | protein of 84 amino acids | regulation of Ca2+ and Pi homeostasis, stimulates renal reabsorption of Ca2+ and bone Ca2+ release thus increasing serum Ca2+, also stimulates renal phosphate (PO43–) efflux |
Adipose Tissue: Not Just Fat page (more complete listing) | ||
167 amino acid precursor processed to 146 amino acids | regulation of overall body weight by limiting food intake and increasing energy expenditure, regulation of the neuroendocrine axis, inflammatory responses, blood pressure, and bone mass | |
244 amino acid protein with four distinct functional domains | major biological actions are increases in insulin sensitivity and fatty acid oxidation | |
108 amino acid preprotein in humans | induces insulin resistance | |
additional discussion of gut hormones: Gut-Brain Interrelationships page | ||
Cholecystokinin (CCK) | predominant form is 33 amino acids | stimulates gallbladder contraction and bile flow, increases secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreas |
derived from N-terminal end of pancreatic colipase; pentapeptide sequence of human enterostatin is APGPR | regulates fat intake, peripheral or central administration inhibits consumption of a high-fat diet but not a low-fat diet | |
216 amino acids; member of the large FGF family of growth factors | produced in ileum, expression of gene activated by transcription factor FXR ; FXR is activated when ileal enterocytes absorb bile acids; when released to the portal circulation FGF19 stimulates hepatic glycogen and protein synthesis while inhibiting glucose production | |
Gastrin | 17 amino acids (little gastrin) and 34 amino acids (big gastrin) | produced by stomach antrum, stimulates acid and pepsin secretion, also stimulates pancreatic secretions |
Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP); a bombesin-like peptide family member | 27 amino acids | stimulates release of gastrin from G cells of the stomach and CCK from small intestinal enteroendocrine I cells |
28 amino acids derived from preproghrelin protein; acylated on Ser3 with n-octanoic acid, non-acylated forms found in circulation also but not bioactive | appetite stimulation, stimulates NPY release, regulation of energy homeostasis, glucose metabolism, gastric secretion and emptying, insulin secretion | |
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) formerly called enteroglucagon | two forms: 31 amino acids, GLP-1(7-37) and 30 amino acids, GLP-1(7-36)amide | potentiates glucose-dependent insulin secretion, inhibits glucagon secretion, inhibits gastric emptying |
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) originally called gastric inhibitory polypeptide | 42 amino acids | inhibits secretion of gastric acid, enhances insulin secretion |
Motilin | 22 amino acids | controls gastrointestinal muscles, stimulates release of PP, stimulates gallbladder contractions |
Nesfatin | 182 amino acids | proteolytic product of the 420 amino acid precursor protein encoded by the NUCB2 (nucleobindin 2) gene; following removal of the 24 amino acid signal peptide the 396 amino acid peptide is cleaved by proprotein convertases 1/3 (PC 1/3) and PC2; nesfatin-1 consists of amino acids 1–82; proteolytic processing also generates nesfatin-2 (amino acids 85–163) and nesfatin-3 (amino acids 166–396); stimulates reduced feeding via actions in the hypothalamus |
Neuromedin B; a bombesin-like peptide family member | 10 amino acids (amidated) | secretion of gastrin, CCK, GIP, insulin; smooth muscle contraction; enhances food intake |
23 amino acids derived from preproghrelin protein | acts in opposition to ghrelin action on appetite | |
37 amino acids, the first 29 are identical to glucagon | contains all of the amino acids of glucagon; inhibits meal-stimulated gastric acid secretion similar to GLP-1 and GLP-2 action; induces satiety, decreases weight gain, and increases energy consumption; has weak affinity for GLP-1 receptor as well as glucagon receptor, may mimic glucagon actions in liver and pancreas | |
Secretin | 27 amino acids | secreted from duodenum at pH values below 4.5, stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to release bicarbonate and H2O |
14 amino acid version | inhibits release and action of numerous gut peptides, e.g. CCK, OXM, PP, gastrin, secretin, motilin, GIP; also inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion from pancreas | |
Substance P, a member of the tachykinin family that includes neurokinin A (NKA) and neurokinin B (NKB) | 11 amino acids | CNS function in pain (nociception), involved in vomit reflex, stimulates salivary secretions, induces vasodilation; antagonists have anti-depressant properties |
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) | 28 amino acids | produced by hypothalamus and GI tract, relaxes the GI, inhibits acid and pepsin secretion, acts as a neurotransmitter in peripheral autonomic nervous system, increases secretion of H2O and electrolytes from pancreas and gut |
36 amino acids | suppresses glucose-induced insulin secretion, inhibits bicarbonate and protein secretion from pancreas | |
36 amino acids | inhibits gastric motility by inhibiting cholinergic neurotransmission, inhibits gastric acid secretion, induces sensations of satiety | |
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) | 36 amino acids | binds to five receptors termed Y receptors; effects on hypothalamic function in appetite, controls feeding behavior and energy homeostasis, levels increase during starvation to induce food intake |
Amphiregulin | two peptides: 78 amino acid truncated form and 84 amino acid form with six additional N-terminal amino acids | homology to EGF and binds to the EGF receptor (EGFR) |
37 amino acids, intrachain disulfide bonded | also called islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), produced by β-cells of the pancreas, co-secreted with insulin; reduces the rate of gastric emptying, suppresses of food intake, and suppresses post-meal glucagon secretion | |
disulfide bonded dipeptide of 21 and 30 amino acids | produced by β-cells of the pancreas, increases glucose uptake and utilization, increases lipogenesis, general anabolic effects | |
polypeptide of 29 amino acids | produced by α-cells of the pancreas, increases lipid mobilization and glycogenolysis in order to increase blood glucose levels | |
polypeptide of 36 amino acids | increases glycogenolysis, regulation of gastrointestinal activity | |
14 amino acid version | inhibition of glucagon and somatotropin release from pancreatic islet cells | |
steroids | maintenance of pregnancy | |
steroids | mimic action of progesterone | |
two proteins: α form is 96 amino acids; β form is 147 | activity similar to LH | |
Chorionic somatomammotropin: also called placental lactogen | protein of 191 amino acids | acts like prolactin and GH |
Relaxin | two proteins of 22 and 32 amino acids | produced in ovarian corpus luteum, inhibits myometrial contractions, secretion increases during gestation |
Estrogens (ovarian) | steroids: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) | estradiol is most potent estrogen and it is the major hormone involved in the maturation and function of female secondary sex organs; estrone is predominant during menopause; estriol predominates in pregnancy; estrogens promote maturation of sperm in males and contribute to libido |
Progestins (ovarian) | steroid: progesterone | implantation of ovum and maintenance of pregnancy |
Androgens (testicular) | steroid: testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) | maturation and function of male secondary sex organs; testosterone in females participates in bone mass and muscle mass and strength, also contributes to female libido |
Inhibins A and B | the inhibin alpha (α) peptide is 134 amino acids and is encoded by the INHA gene; the α-peptide forms disulfide bonds with either the inhibin beta A (115 amino acids encoded by the INHBA gene) peptide forming inhibin A or with the inhibin beta B (116 amino acid encoded by the INHBB gene) peptide forming inhibin B | inhibition of FSH secretion |
steroids: cortisol and corticosterone | diverse effects on inflammation and protein synthesis | |
steroids: aldosterone | maintenance of salt balance | |
Epinephrine (adrenalin) | derived from tyrosine | classic "fight-or-flight" response, increases glycogenolysis, lipid mobilization, smooth muscle contraction, cardiac function, binds to all classes of catecholamine receptors (α- and β-adrenergic) |
Norepinephrine (noradrenalin) | derived from tyrosine | classic "fight-or-flight" response, lipid mobilization, arteriole contraction, also acts as neurotransmitter in the CNS, released from noradrenergic neurons, binds all catecholamine receptors except β2-adrenergic |
Growth Factors and Tissue "kines" page (more complete listing) | ||
polypeptide of 8 amino acids derived from angiotensinogen (present in the α2-globulin fraction of plasma) which is cleaved by the kidney enzyme renin to give the decapeptide, angiotensin I, the C-terminal 2 amino acids are then released (by action of angiotensin-converting enzyme, ACE) to yield angiotensin II | responsible for essential hypertension through stimulated synthesis and release of aldosterone from adrenal cells | |
Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)2-vitamin D3] | derived from 7-dehydrocholesterol | responsible for maintenance of calcium and phosphorous homeostasis, increases intestinal Ca2+ uptake, regulates bone mineralization |
Erythropoietin (EPO) | derived from 193 amino acid precursor protein | highly glycosylated hormone (40% of total mass) that is also considered a growth factor; is required for erythropoiesis in the bone marrow; exerts its effects by binding the EPO receptor, EPOR |
126 amino acid precursor is cleaved to release an N-terminal peptide that is similar to vasoactive peptide, the C-terminus possesses the ANP activity | released from heart atria in response to hypervolemia; actions include natriuresis, diuresis, vasorelaxation, inhibition of renin and aldosterone secretion, also plays a key role in cardiovascular homeostasis | |
three family members: ET-1, ET-2, ET-3; all are 21 amino acid peptides with two Cys-Cys disulfide bonds | released from endothelial cells; interact with G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) identified as ETA and ETB; endothelins primarily mediate smooth muscle contraction upon binding to endothelin receptors on these cells; can elicit smooth muscle relaxation through interactions with endothelin receptors on endothelial cells which results in increased nitric oxide (NO) production; the ETB receptor had been suggested to exist in two forms, ETB1 and ETB2 , but there is no pharmacological evidence to support the existence of two forms in humans; an additional endothelin receptor identified as ETC was proposed but no gene in the human genome has been identified | |
Natriuretic peptide B (BNP) | precursor BNP is cleaved intracellularly and then also when released to the blood | released from heart ventricles in response to hypervolemia; original mammalian BNP was isolated from brain but the human brain natriuretic factor is CNP; BNP and ANP act by binding to the same receptor; actions include natriuresis, diuresis, vasorelaxation, inhibition of renin and aldosterone secretion, also plays a key role in cardiovascular homeostasis |
derived from tryptophan; structure is N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine | regulation of circadian rhythms |